a. UML (Unified Modeling Language) is a standard language for specifying, visualizing, constructing, and documenting the artifacts of software systems. There are several types of UML diagrams:

1. Use Case Diagram: This diagram represents the functionality of the system from an end-user point of view. For example, in a library management system, a use case could be "issue book", which would involve the librarian and the member.

2. Class Diagram: This diagram represents the static structure of a system, showing the system's classes, their attributes, operations (or methods), and the relationships among objects. For example, in a school system, classes could be "Student", "Teacher", "Course", each with their own attributes and methods.

3. Sequence Diagram: This diagram shows how processes operate with one another and in what order. For example, in an online shopping system, a sequence diagram could show the interactions between the customer, cart, and payment system.

b. Modelling techniques used in Class/Object diagrams include:

1. Association: This represents a relationship between two or more classes. For example, a "Teacher" class could be associated with a "Course" class.

2. Aggregation: This is a special form of association, which represents a whole-part relationship. For example, a "Department" class could aggregate several "Employee" classes.

3. Inheritance: This represents a is-a relationship between classes, where one class is a specialized version of another. For example, a "Manager" class could inherit from an "Employee" class.

c. Abstraction and Encapsulation are two fundamental concepts in OOP:

1. Abstraction: This is the process of hiding the internal details and describing things in simple terms. For example, a car is viewed as a car rather than its individual components.

2. Encapsulation: This is the process of wrapping code and data into a single unit. For example, a class in OOP is an example of encapsulation as it encapsulates all the data and methods that are member of class.

d. Call by value and call by reference are two ways to pass arguments to a function in C++:

1. Call by Value: In this method, the value of each of the actual arguments in the calling function is copied into corresponding formal arguments of the called function. Changes made to formal arguments do not affect actual arguments.

2. Call by Reference: In this method, the address of actual arguments is copied into formal arguments, hence any change made to formal arguments affects the actual arguments.

e. Constructors in C++ are special member functions which are used to initialize objects. There are three types of constructors:

1. Default Constructor: It is a constructor which doesn't take any argument. It has no parameters.

2. Parameterized Constructor: It is a constructor which takes arguments.

3. Copy Constructor: It is a constructor which initializes an object using another object of the same class.

Question

a. UML (Unified Modeling Language) is a standard language for specifying, visualizing, constructing, and documenting the artifacts of software systems. There are several types of UML diagrams:

1. Use Case Diagram: This diagram represents the functionality of the system from an end-user point of view. For example, in a library management system, a use case could be "issue book", which would involve the librarian and the member.

2. Class Diagram: This diagram represents the static structure of a system, showing the system's classes, their attributes, operations (or methods), and the relationships among objects. For example, in a school system, classes could be "Student", "Teacher", "Course", each with their own attributes and methods.

3. Sequence Diagram: This diagram shows how processes operate with one another and in what order. For example, in an online shopping system, a sequence diagram could show the interactions between the customer, cart, and payment system.

b. Modelling techniques used in Class/Object diagrams include:

1. Association: This represents a relationship between two or more classes. For example, a "Teacher" class could be associated with a "Course" class.

2. Aggregation: This is a special form of association, which represents a whole-part relationship. For example, a "Department" class could aggregate several "Employee" classes.

3. Inheritance: This represents a is-a relationship between classes, where one class is a specialized version of another. For example, a "Manager" class could inherit from an "Employee" class.

c. Abstraction and Encapsulation are two fundamental concepts in OOP:

1. Abstraction: This is the process of hiding the internal details and describing things in simple terms. For example, a car is viewed as a car rather than its individual components.

2. Encapsulation: This is the process of wrapping code and data into a single unit. For example, a class in OOP is an example of encapsulation as it encapsulates all the data and methods that are member of class.

d. Call by value and call by reference are two ways to pass arguments to a function in C++:

1. Call by Value: In this method, the value of each of the actual arguments in the calling function is copied into corresponding formal arguments of the called function. Changes made to formal arguments do not affect actual arguments.

2. Call by Reference: In this method, the address of actual arguments is copied into formal arguments, hence any change made to formal arguments affects the actual arguments.

e. Constructors in C++ are special member functions which are used to initialize objects. There are three types of constructors:

1. Default Constructor: It is a constructor which doesn't take any argument. It has no parameters.

2. Parameterized Constructor: It is a constructor which takes arguments.

3. Copy Constructor: It is a constructor which initializes an object using another object of the same class.

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