Research on animal intelligence has proliferated in recent decades, producing additional evidence of complex types of thought in non-human creatures.  Although primates have been the most frequent subjects of such study, observations of avians have at times proved even more striking.  In particular, some members of the Corvid family (such as ravens, crows, and jays) display a high capability to successfully confront novel challenges through innovative behavior.One occasion of such behavior was documented by University of Vermont zoologist Bernd Heinrich in an experiment with Common Ravens.  Heinrich's central focus was whether the birds could discern the solution to a newly encountered problem of food acquisition without any training or prior familiarity with the problem's elements.  To address this question, he presented groups of ravens with pieces of meat suspended from a perch by a length of string.  The food was too far from either the perch or the ground to be reached from those vantage points.  Hence, accessing the food efficiently would require using the string itself, a situation not encountered in the wild and to which none of the birds had been previously exposed.The first two ravens to approach the food found little success in retrieving it.  As Heinrich relates, both Bird 3 and Bird 27 attempted to jump and grab the meat from the air.  Although this process resulted in only tiny scraps of food being obtained, both birds initially "tried no other method after the pattern was established on the first day."  However, another raven fared far better.  After pecking and yanking on the string, Bird 4 "appeared to abandon all attempts to get the meat, but [six hours] later again tried the same behavior.  This time, however, after one of these yanks of the string, the bird put one foot on this pulled-up string, reached down and pulled up another length of string, to step on it again after backing up another step along the perch, to repeat the process until reaching the meat."  Thus, the raven "performed a behavioral sequence of at least six steps…with no apparent trial-and-error learning for most if not all of these steps, chaining these steps together into a single unbroken sequence."  Days later, Bird 5 also discovered how to access the meat in this way, completing "the entire repetitive sequence correctly all at once."  Eventually Bird 3 and Bird 30 learned as well, but only after weeks of further opportunities.The most notable point of these observations is the ravens' apparent ability to solve a problem for which neither instinct nor experience could be expected to have prepared them.  Heinrich casts his experiment in terms of testing for insight, or "the possibility of mental awareness—of seeing into a situation."  Naturally, such awareness can only be inferred rather than observed directly, and researchers should be wary of the tendency to anthropomorphize animals when discussing their mental capabilities.  Nevertheless, such wariness should not prevent us from drawing at least probable or tentative conclusions.  Bird 4 especially seems almost to have mentally worked through the scenario in the intervening time between its originally unsuccessful and subsequent successful attempts to retrieve the food.  In the human world, we might speak of someone thinking about a problem for a while before trying another solution.  Even if we are reluctant to view Bird 4's behavior as a precise analogue, it seems clear that the raven displayed evidence of a noteworthy mental operation.  In further experiments, some other ravens also demonstrated the ability to pull up food on strings.  Although Heinrich notes that the birds exhibiting this behavior are "possibly exceptional," they represent a fascinating example in our understanding of animal intelligence.Passage Title: Ravens: Learning through Insight Question 21During another researcher's observation of Corvids, a Steller's Jay deliberately broke a twig off a bush and subsequently thrust it at an American Crow with which it was competing for food.  The researcher interpreted the jay's behavior as a unique instance of a bird using a weapon.  This interpretation would most accord with which of the following ideas in the passage?A.The claim that avians have displayed even more striking behavior than primatesB.The claim that some types of challenges would not be encountered in the wildC.The conclusion that Corvids are highly capable of successfully confronting novel challengesD.The conclusion that animal behavior research provides evidence of complex types of thought in non-humans

A recent research collaboration has discovered that crows exhibit strong behavioral signs of analogical reasoning—the ability to solve puzzles like “bird is to air as fish is to what?” Analogical reasoning is considered to be the pinnacle of cognition and it only develops in humans between the ages of three and four.5 Mark For Review5As used in the text, what does the word “strong” most nearly mean?A) powerfulB) compellingC) intenseD) extreme

Passage 1The intelligence of dolphins is well documented by science. Studies show that dolphins can understand signlanguage, solve puzzles, and use objects in their environment as tools. Scientists also believe that dolphinspossess a sophisticated language: numerous instances have been recorded in which possess transmittedinformation from one individual to another. A recent experiment proved that even recognize themselves ina mirror – something achieved by very few animals. This behavior tells us that dolphins are aware that theyhave individual personalities and indicates that their intelligence may be very close to our own.Passage 2Are dolphins unusually intelligent? Dolphins have large brains, but we know that large brain size alonedoes not determine what kind of intelligence a creature has. Some researchers have suggested that dolphinshave big brains because they need them – for sonar and sound processing and social interactions. Othershave argued that regardless of brain size, dolphins have an intelligence level somewhere between a dog anda chimpanzee. The fact is, we don’t know. Just as human intelligence is appropriate for human needs,dolphin intelligence is right for the dolphin’s way of life. Until we know more, all we can say is that dolphinintelligence is different.Which point of view do you agree with? Explain why by presenting an argument as learned from the lesson.

Text 1An animal is said to have a theory of mind when it is able to act according to the mental states of other individuals. Psychologists David Premack and Guy Woodruff studied whether chimpanzees have such a theory of mind. They showed videos of human actors struggling with various problems. The chimpanzees were able to select photographs that showed the best tool to solve each actor’s problem.Text 2Biologist Daniel J. Povinelli and psychologists Kurt E. Nelson and Sarah T. Boysen have argued that previous research into whether chimpanzees have a theory of mind have not adequately addressed alternative explanations for the chimpanzees’ behaviors. Specifically, it may be the case that chimpanzees are following learned behaviors in a known environment, rather than applying a theory of mind in a novel situation.Based on the texts, how would Povinelli, Nelson, and Boysen (Text 2) most likely respond to Premack and Woodruff (Text 1)?*A. They would argue that nonhuman primates other than chimpanzees, such as baboons and gorillas, may also have a theory of mind.B. They would argue that the chimpanzees would be able to solve the problems themselves without referencing the photographs by struggling with the situation themselves and eventually determining the correct solution.C. They would encourage Premack and Woodruff to show the same videos and photgraphs to other nonhuman primates and compare the other nonhuman primates' reactions to the chimpanzees' reactions.D. They would suggest that placing the chimpanzee subjects in novel environments, such as rooms distinct from the chimpanzees' regular enclosures, may help better ascertain whether chimpanzees have a theory of mind.

A student observes bird behavior in response to different songs. A hypothesis the student forms is Birds like songs because they sound pretty. True or False: The hypothesis "Birds like certain songs because they are pretty to listen too" is testable.

The study of cetaceanintelligence has added to our understanding of dolphin behavior. Even thoughcetaceans, which are marine animals including dolphins, whales, and porpoises,are widely considered intelligent species, conclusions about the type andextent of dolphin intelligence have not yet been reached. However, there areseveral things that we do know about the ways in which dolphins communicate andbehave in groups.Researchers study thelevel of communication among dolphins because communication systems can offerinsight into an animal’s intelligence. Dolphins produce two primary types ofvocalizations called clicks and whistles. Dolphins generally use clicks for thepurposes of echolocation and whistles for communication. Dolphins emit clicksas rapid broadband bursts that are sent out into their environment and thenecho back, giving them information about their surroundings. Whistles differfrom clicks by being sent out as narrow-band frequency modulated signals, whichare for communications such as contact calls. Strong evidence supports the ideathat dolphins use signature whistles to identify and call to each other.One hypothesis calledthe “acoustic flashlight” hypothesis maintains that dolphins may be able tolearn passively about their surroundings by listening in on the echolocationinspections of other dolphins. Scientists are researching this idea by lookingat how dolphins participate in postural pointing, an activity that humansperform when they point a finger to direct another person towards an object orlocation.Communication is alsoan important part of how dolphins behave in groups, which can range in sizefrom a pair of dolphins to a pod of hundreds of individuals. Researchers havenoticed that large packs rely on a highly organized method of communicationwhen responding to predators, such as sharks. When a group of dolphins reactsto an unexpected disturbance, it will quickly move in near-unison to avoid thethreat. In this way, dolphins rely on visual and auditory cues to communicatetheir location and to interpret the locations of others in the pod.