In Sophistical Refutations, Aristotle also identifies seven material fallacies, or those rooted in flawed logic. Sometimes they’re referred to as fallacies of presumption, as they often presume an incorrect conclusion or avoid the issue at hand altogether.The fallacy of accident is committed when a general rule is applied to an exceptional circumstance. It might look something like this: “You shouldn’t shout ‘fire’ in a crowded theater, so it was wrong for you to do so when you smelled smoke.”Secundum quid et simpliciter works similarly. It involves using an exceptional scenario to argue that a rule should be rejected outright. Promoting the abolition of traffic laws because ambulances sometimes run red lights is an example of secundum quid.Affirming the consequent means taking a true statement and saying its converse is also true. For example, if you’re in Paris, you must also be in France. But reversing these clauses makes the statement incorrect, because if you’re in France, you could be somewhere other than Paris.The next couple of fallacies are more straightforward. The fallacy of irrelevant conclusion is exactly what it sounds like: a conclusion that fails to address the topic of the argument. The false cause fallacy is an argument that erroneously assumes one event led to another. And the many questions fallacy involves asking questions that presume information that may not be true.Finally, we have begging the question. Also known as a circular argument, this fallacy relies on an argument’s conclusion to support its premise. Oftentimes, the premise appears to simply repeat the conclusion in different words. Saying that video games are fun because they’re enjoyable is begging the question because it doesn’t actually explain why video games are enjoyable.Which of the following is an example of begging the question? aThe book is a bestseller because it sold the most copies. bIf you don’t eat meat at this meal, you’re a vegetarian. cThis medication helps cancer patients, so it would help all people. dEvery time I wash my car, it rains the next da

In the fourth century BCE, the Greek philosopher Aristotle published the Organon, a collection of works on logical analysis. In it, the essay Sophistical Refutations outlines 13 fallacies that render an argument invalid. Aristotle separated these fallacies into two categories: verbal, or those that involve imprecise or improper language, and material, or those founded on faulty reasoning.There are six verbal fallacies that Aristotle identifies. The first is equivocation, a type of ambiguity that can occur when a word or phrase is used in multiple ways. An equivocal argument might look something like this:All trees have bark. Every dog barks. Therefore, a dog is a tree.In the first sentence, “bark” means the tough exterior of a tree. In the second, it’s the sound that a dog makes. Of course, we all know that a dog isn’t really a tree. But here, it’s because the word that associates them, “bark,” is being used in two separate contexts.Two other verbal fallacies that Aristotle names, composition and division, are the inverse of each other. Composition occurs when one argues that because something is true of certain members of a group, it must be true of the collective. Division, on the other hand, means arguing that if something is true of a group, it must be true of each individual member.Of the remaining verbal fallacies, only two are relevant to us today: amphibology, which refers to ambiguous sentence structure; and accent, or emphasis placed on certain words to elicit different meanings. Figure of speech, the final fallacy, is specific to Greek and Latin language as they were used in Aristotle’s lifetime.Which of the following is an example of composition? aThis potato is rotten, so the others in the bag must also be rotten. bMy dog likes to be petted, so a wolf would like it, too. cDark chocolate is healthy, and this cake contains dark chocolate, so it must be healthy. dPeople from Spain speak Spanish. You’re from Spain, so you speak Spanish.

86. The term fallacy is derived from the Latin infinitive which means to deceive… a. Falere c. Failure b. Fallire d. Fallere 87. It occurs in arguments whose premises are logically irrelevant so that their conclusions cannot be established. a. Fallacy of Language c. Sophism b. b. Fallacy of Relevance d. Fallacy of Ignorance 88. This fallacy arises when an argument takes place when an argument takes the attributes of a collection of elements as the attributes of the elements themselves. a. Composition c. Fallacy b. Division d. Accent 89. Reincarnation is not true because nobody has proven it. a. Begging the question c. Ad Ignorantiam b. Accident d. Repeated assertion 90. It arises when the question raised presupposes an answer to another question which is not raised. a. Division c. False Cause b. Repeated assertion d. Complex Question 91. The student cannot be expelled from CNU no matter what he/she do because they belong to marginalize group of people. a. Ad Baculum c. Ad Misericordiam b. Ad Hominem d. None of the Above

Study the types of logical fallacies on pages 246-247. Mach each example given below to its fallacy type. If you eat this slice of pizza, you will gain weight.   You tell your roommate that you would rather study for your quiz this evening than watching Netflix. Your roommate rolls her eyes and says that you do not want to spend time with her anymore. The new restaurant that opened in the mall serves delicious food. Thus, the owner of this restaurant should run for presidency.   I showered and then went for a walk without drying my hair, and because of that, I became ill in the evening.  A. Straw ManB. Slippery SlopeC. Non sequiturD. Post hoc, ergo propter hoc

Hasty Generalization (Converse Accident) is the fallacy occurs when there is a reasonable likelihood that the sample is not representative of the group. Such a likelihood may arise if the sample is either too small or not randomly selected.Group of answer choicesTrueFalse

79. It arises when an argument is taken as true just because it has not been proven as false, or when an argument is taken as false. a. Ad Ignorantiam c. Ad misericordiam b. Ad baculum d. Ad Hominem 80. It refers to a fallacy of content… a. Formal Fallacy b. Informal Fallacy 81. All those who are knowledgeable are ignorant, according to Mr. John. a. Ad verecundiam c. Ad Hominem b. Ad misericordiam d. Ad Baculum 82. Vehicles were hit like a diabolic number 666. a. Non sequitur c. Begging the question b. False Cause d. Amphiboly 83. Complex question comes from the Latin word… a. Plureum interrogationum b. Plurium interrogation c. Plurium Interrogationum d. None of the Above 84. It is fallacious because what is true of one is not necessarily true to all. a. False Cause c. Cannot be found b. Converse Accident d. Accident 85. I am a seminarian. Therefore, I am good in praying. a. Accent c. Circular Argument b. Composition d. Composite